This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

Global biomedical and public health research involves billions of dollars and millions of people. In 2010, expenditure on life sciences (mostly biomedical) research was US$240 billion.3 The USA is the largest funder, with about $70 billion in commercial and $40 billion in governmental and non-profit funding annually,4 representing slightly more than 5% of US health-care expenditure. Although this vast enterprise has led to substantial health improvements, many more gains are possible if the waste and inefficiency in the ways that biomedical research is chosen, designed, done, analysed, regulated, managed, disseminated, and reported can be addressed.

This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

The Three Rs tenet (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement) guides scientists on the ethical use of animals in science.

This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

CAMARADES (Collaborative Approach to Meta-Analysis and Review of Animal Data from Experimental Studies) provides a supporting framework for groups involved in the systematic review and meta-analysis of data from experimental animal studies.

This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

Animal experiments are widely used to develop new medicines and to test the safety of other products. Many of these experiments cause pain to the animals involved or reduce their quality of life in other ways. If it is morally wrong to cause animals to suffer then experimenting on animals produces serious moral problems.

This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

The Australian & New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART) website contains information for animal carers, animal ethics committee members and scientists as well as other interested parties.

This resource is to complement your learning, and introduce you to other perspectives on the topics under discussion.

Mice can be used to mimic Alzheimer's disease in humans. Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia. Currently there are no effective treatments so mice models offer one approach to both understanding and developing treatments for Alzheimer's. 

Gene-editing technologies have breathed life into the languishing field of xenotransplantation.

Despite large investments in drug development, the overall success rate of drugs during clinical development remains low. One prominent explanation is flawed preclinical research, in which the use and outcome of animal models is pivotal to bridge the translational gap to the clinic. Therefore, the selection of a validated and predictive animal model is essential to address the clinical question. In this review, the current challenges and limitations of animal models are discussed, with a focus on the fit-forpurpose validation. Moreover, guidance is provided on the selection, design and conduct of an animal model, including the recommendation of assessing both efficacy and safety endpoints. In order to improve the clinical translation, the use of humanized mouse models and preclinical applications of clinical features are discussed. On top, the translational value of animal models could be further enhanced when combined with emerging alternative translational approaches.

The International Guiding Principles for Biomedical Research Involving Animals has been the framework for t he development of laws, po licies, and guidelines for over 25 years. When the Guiding Principles were written in 1985, the profession of laboratory animal medicine and science was sti ll establishingbest practices and standards of care. Over the years, many of these practices and standard s have become ingrained in the oversight structure of numerous countries. Since the publication of the original Guiding Principles, the scope of animal research has expanded significantly, numerous technological advancements have occurred, and societal attention to the welfare of research animals has increased. This evolution has prompted an update and expansion of the focus of the Guiding Principles to address contemporary issues facing scientists when animals are used for research and education.